Category Archives: Insurance Definition
Insurance Float: Meaning and Calculation In the complex world of insurance and finance, few concepts are as misunderstood—yet as powerful—as the “insurance float
Made famous by legendary investor Warren Buffett, the float is the lifeblood of many insurance companies and a cornerstone of their investment strategies. This article provides a comprehensive, professional overview of what insurance float is, why it matters, and how it is calculated.
What Is Insurance Float?
At its most basic level, the insurance float is the pool of money that an insurance company holds but does not yet own. It consists of the premiums collected from policyholders that have not yet been paid out in claims, as well as reserves set aside for future liabilities. Because claims are paid out over time—sometimes years after premiums are received—the insurer can invest this temporary capital to generate returns.
In essence, float represents the difference between the money an insurer takes in (premiums plus investment income) and the money it pays out (claims and operating expenses). When an insurer is able to generate underwriting profits (i.e., premiums exceed claims and expenses), the float is effectively free money—capital that costs the insurer nothing to borrow.
The Mechanics of Float
To understand float, consider a simplified example:
– An insurer collects 0 million in annual premiums.
– It pays out million in claims and million in operating expenses.
– The remaining million is an underwriting profit.
– However, during the year, the insurer may hold a much larger amount of float—say 0 million—because claims are not paid immediately. This 0 million is invested in bonds, stocks, or other assets.
The float is not static; it grows when premiums increase or when claims are paid slowly, and it shrinks when claims spike or when the company loses policies. The key insight is that the insurer can invest the float and keep any investment returns, while only owing the policyholders the eventual claim amounts.
Why Float Matters
Float is valuable for two primary reasons:
Insurers can invest the float in a diversified portfolio. If the investment return exceeds the cost of carrying the float (which is often zero or negative when underwriting is profitable), the insurer earns a profit without deploying its own capital.
A company with a large, stable float can underwrite policies more aggressively (lower premiums) because it can rely on investment income to supplement underwriting results. This creates a virtuous cycle: lower prices attract more customers, which increases float, which generates more investment income.
Warren Buffett has often described Berkshire Hathaway’s insurance operations as the “engine” of its growth, precisely because the float provides billions in interest-free capital to invest in stocks and businesses.
How to Calculate Insurance Float
The calculation of float is straightforward, though the underlying accounting can be complex. The standard formula is:
Float = Total Reserves + Unearned Premiums – Accounts Receivable – Deferred Acquisition Costs
Let’s break down each component:
Money set aside for expected future claims (loss reserves) and for claims that have been incurred but not yet reported (IBNR). This is the largest component.
Premiums collected for coverage that extends into the future. Since the insurer has not yet “earned” these premiums, they are a liability until the policy period elapses.
Premiums owed by policyholders but not yet collected. These are subtracted because they represent money the insurer has not yet received.
Commissions and other costs paid to acquire policies. These are capitalized and amortized, so they are subtracted to avoid double-counting.
Alternatively, a simpler, more practical method used by analysts is:
Float = Loss Reserves + Loss Adjustment Expense Reserves + Unearned Premium Reserves – Premiums Receivable – Deferred Policy Acquisition Costs
A Numerical Example
Suppose an insurance company reports the following balance sheet items (in millions):
– Loss Reserves: 0
– Loss Adjustment Expense Reserves: 0
– Unearned Premium Reserves: 0
– Premiums Receivable:
– Deferred Acquisition Costs:
Using the formula:
Float = 0 + 0 + 0 – – = 0 million
This means the insurer has 0 million in policyholder funds available for investment. If the company earns a 5% return on these funds, that’s million in investment income—money that belongs to the insurer, not the policyholders, as long as claims are eventually paid.
The Cost of Float
While float is often described as “free,” it is not always so. The cost of float is determined by underwriting results:
(premiums > claims + expenses), the float has a negative cost. The insurer is effectively paid to hold and invest the money.
(claims + expenses > premiums), the float has a positive cost. The insurer must cover the shortfall, reducing the net benefit of investment income.
For example, if an insurer loses million on underwriting but earns million from investing the float, its net gain is million. But if underwriting losses reach million, the float becomes a net drag.
Limitations and Risks
Float is not a risk-free source of capital. Key risks include:
Some claims (e.g., asbestos, environmental damage) take decades to settle, making reserve estimates uncertain.
When rates are low, investment returns on float diminish, reducing profitability.
A sudden surge in claims can deplete float and force the insurer to sell investments at a loss.
Thus, while float is a powerful financial tool, it requires disciplined underwriting and prudent investment management.
Conclusion
Insurance float is a deceptively simple concept with profound implications. It represents the temporary use of policyholders’ money, which insurers can invest for their own benefit. When managed well, float provides a low-cost or even negative-cost source of capital, enabling insurers to compete aggressively and generate substantial investment returns. Understanding how to calculate and interpret float is essential for investors, analysts, and insurance professionals alike—because in the world of insurance, the float is often where the real value lies.
re is a professionally written article on the requested topic
—
Guaranteed Issue Life Insurance Definition: A Comprehensive Guide
In the complex landscape of financial planning, life insurance stands as a cornerstone of security, offering peace of mind and financial protection for loved ones. However, for many individuals, particularly seniors or those with significant health challenges, obtaining traditional life insurance can be a daunting and often discouraging process. Medical underwriting, health questionnaires, and lab tests frequently serve as barriers to coverage.
This is where Guaranteed Issue Life Insurance enters the picture. As a specialized financial product, it offers a lifeline to those who might otherwise be left without any coverage. This article provides a professional, in-depth definition of guaranteed issue life insurance, exploring its mechanics, benefits, drawbacks, and ideal use cases to help you make an informed decision.
Defining Guaranteed Issue Life Insurance
Guaranteed Issue Life Insurance is a type of whole life insurance policy that requires no medical exam and, crucially, does not ask any health-related questions. The insurer guarantees acceptance to any applicant who meets the age requirements (typically between 50 and 85 years old) and is a U.S. citizen or resident.
Unlike term or traditional whole life policies, the underwriting process is virtually non-existent. There is no health screening, no review of prescription history, and no access to your medical records. As long as you fall within the policy’s age parameters, your application is accepted, regardless of your current health status or pre-existing conditions.
This product is often referred to as “Final Expense” insurance or “Burial Insurance” because its primary purpose is to cover end-of-life costs, such as funeral expenses, medical bills, and other outstanding debts.
How It Works:
The Mechanics of the Policy
To fully understand the definition, one must grasp the structural mechanics that make guaranteed issue policies viable for insurers. Because the risk of insuring an unhealthy individual is significantly higher, the policy is structured with specific safeguards:
This is the most critical feature. Guaranteed issue policies typically include a waiting period, usually two to three years from the policy’s effective date. If the insured passes away from natural causes during this period, the beneficiary does not receive the full death benefit. Instead, the insurance company refunds the total amount of premiums paid, plus a small percentage of interest (often 10%).
– *Exception:* If death occurs due to an accident during the waiting period, the full death benefit is paid out immediately.
The premiums are locked in at the time of purchase and do not increase with age or changing health conditions. This provides predictable budgeting for the policyholder.
As a form of whole life insurance, the policy lasts for the lifetime of the insured, provided premiums are paid. It also accumulates a small cash value component over time, though it grows very slowly in the early years due to the high cost of coverage.
To mitigate risk, the face value of these policies is relatively low. Coverage typically ranges from ,000 to ,000, with some carriers offering up to ,000 depending on the applicant’s age.
The Advantages:
Who Is This For?
Guaranteed issue insurance serves a distinct and vital purpose. Its primary advantages include:
It provides a safety net for individuals who have been declined by traditional insurers due to serious illnesses such as cancer, heart disease, diabetes, or a history of stroke.
The application process is quick, often completed over the phone or online in minutes. There is no waiting for blood work or medical records to be reviewed.
It allows individuals to protect their families from the financial burden of final expenses, ensuring that a funeral does not become a financial crisis for surviving relatives.
The premiums are designed to be affordable, aligning with the smaller death benefit.
The Disadvantages:
A Critical Perspective
While valuable, guaranteed issue life insurance is not without its significant drawbacks. A professional analysis requires a candid look at these limitations:
The two-to-three-year waiting period is the most significant risk. If a policyholder passes away from natural causes early in the policy term, their beneficiaries receive only a refund of premiums, not the intended death benefit. This can create a false sense of security.
Compared to traditional whole life or term policies, the premium per ,000 of coverage is substantially higher. You are paying a premium for the insurer’s increased risk.
The capped benefit amounts may not be sufficient to cover larger estates, significant outstanding debts, or provide long-term income replacement for a spouse. It is strictly for final expenses, not wealth transfer.
Guaranteed Issue vs.
Simplified Issue
It is common to confuse guaranteed issue with Simplified Issue Life Insurance. The key difference lies in the underwriting process:
Requires answering a series of health questions (typically 5–10). It does not require a medical exam, but the insurer can decline coverage based on your answers. There is *no* waiting period for the full death benefit.
As defined, asks *no* health questions and guarantees acceptance. However, it *always* carries the graded death benefit waiting period.
If you can answer a few health questions honestly and qualify for a Simplified Issue policy, that is often the superior choice due to the immediate full coverage. Guaranteed issue should be the last resort for those who cannot qualify for any other type of policy.
Conclusion:
Is It the Right Choice?
The definition of guaranteed issue life insurance is rooted in the principle of guaranteed acceptance over immediate coverage. It is a specialized tool designed for a specific demographic: those who are high-risk, have been declined elsewhere, and have a pressing need to cover final expenses without burdening their family.
A professional financial advisor would recommend exhausting all other options first—such as employer-sponsored group life insurance, Simplified Issue policies, or traditional term life—before settling on a guaranteed issue plan. However, for the individual who has no other path to coverage, this insurance serves as an essential and dignified financial instrument, ensuring that no one is left without the means to manage the final chapter of life.
—
Disclaimer: This article is for informational purposes only and does not constitute financial or insurance advice. Insurance products and regulations vary by state and provider. Always consult with a licensed insurance professional to discuss your specific circumstances and compare quotes before making a purchase decision.
What Is an Insurance Binder for Mortgages?
When you’re in the process of buying a home, the paperwork can feel overwhelming. Among the many documents you’ll encounter, one term often causes confusion: the insurance binder. If you’re securing a mortgage, understanding what an insurance binder is—and why lenders require it—can save you time, money, and last-minute stress.
—
Defining an Insurance Binder
An insurance binder is a temporary, legally binding document issued by an insurance company or agent. It serves as proof that a specific insurance policy is in effect or will go into effect immediately, even before the formal policy paperwork is printed and delivered. In the context of a mortgage, the binder typically covers homeowners insurance (hazard insurance), but it can also apply to flood insurance or other required coverage.
Think of it as a “promissory note” from the insurer: it confirms that coverage exists, outlines the basic terms (such as coverage limits and effective dates), and assures all parties—especially the lender—that the property is protected.
—
Why Do Mortgage Lenders Require an Insurance Binder?
Your lender has a substantial financial stake in your home. If the property is damaged or destroyed by fire, wind, or other covered perils, the lender needs to ensure that the loan can still be repaid or the property rebuilt. Therefore, lenders universally require proof of homeowners insurance before closing.
Here’s where the binder becomes critical:
Your lender will not fund the loan without evidence that insurance is active on the closing date. Since the final policy often takes days or weeks to be issued, the binder bridges that gap.
If you’re switching insurers or buying a new policy, the binder ensures there is no period without coverage.
The binder confirms that the policy meets the lender’s minimum requirements, such as coverage at least equal to the replacement cost of the home or the loan amount.
—
What Information Does an Insurance Binder Contain?
A standard insurance binder for a mortgage includes:
The policyholder(s) (you).
The exact location of the mortgaged home.
For example, dwelling coverage, personal property, liability, and additional living expenses.
The exact start and end date of the binder (usually 30 to 60 days).
The out-of-pocket amount you’ll pay before insurance kicks in.
So the lender can verify the policy.
The lender’s name and address, indicating they are listed as an interested party on the policy.
—
How Long Does an Insurance Binder Last?
Typically, an insurance binder is issued for 30 to 60 days. This window is designed to give the insurer enough time to underwrite the policy, inspect the property if needed, and issue the final policy documents. If the binder expires before the final policy is issued, your agent can usually issue a renewal binder or extension—but this must be done before the expiration date to avoid a lapse in coverage.
—
Is an Insurance Binder the Same as a Certificate of Insurance?
No, they are different documents:
Temporary proof of coverage, issued *before* the policy is finalized. It is a binding contract in itself.
A summary of an *existing* policy, often used for ongoing proof (e.g., for landlords or contractors). It does not grant coverage; it merely documents it.
For mortgage closings, you will almost always need a binder if the policy is new, and a certificate if you already have an active policy and are simply adding the lender as a mortgagee.
—
What Happens If You Don’t Provide a Binder?
If you fail to provide an insurance binder before closing, the lender will likely postpone the closing date. In some cases, the lender may purchase force-placed insurance—a policy the lender buys on your behalf, which is typically much more expensive and offers less protection for you. This is a last resort and should be avoided at all costs.
—
How to Obtain an Insurance Binder
The process is straightforward:
and apply for a homeowners policy.
(name, address, and loan number) so the insurer can include the mortgagee clause.
from your agent or insurer once your application is approved.
or closing agent as soon as you receive it.
Most insurers can issue a binder electronically within hours, sometimes even the same day.
—
Final Thoughts
An insurance binder is a simple but vital document in the mortgage process. It protects both you and your lender by ensuring that the home is insured from day one, even while the formal paperwork is being processed. By understanding its purpose and securing it early, you can keep your home purchase on track and avoid unnecessary delays.
Pro tip: Always request your binder at least two weeks before your scheduled closing date. This gives you ample time to correct any errors, update coverage limits, or resolve any issues with your lender’s requirements.
—
*If you have questions about your specific mortgage or insurance needs, consult your insurance agent and your loan officer—they are your best resources for a smooth, successful closing.*
re is a professional English article explaining the 80/20 coinsurance rule in clear, simple terms
—
Title: Coinsurance 80/20 Rule Explained Simply
Introduction
Health insurance terminology can be confusing, but one of the most common concepts you will encounter is the “80/20 coinsurance rule.” If you have a health plan with coinsurance, this rule directly affects how much you pay when you visit a doctor, go to the hospital, or fill a prescription. This article breaks down the 80/20 rule in simple, straightforward language.
What Is Coinsurance?
Coinsurance is the percentage of a medical bill you are required to pay after you have met your annual deductible. It is different from a copay, which is a fixed dollar amount (e.g., for a doctor’s visit). With coinsurance, you share a percentage of the total cost with your insurance company.
The 80/20 Rule Explained
The “80/20” refers to the split of costs between you and your insurer. Under this rule, once you have paid your deductible:
of the covered medical expenses.
of the covered medical expenses.
For example, imagine you have a ,000 deductible and you have already met it. You then need a medical procedure that costs ,000. Under the 80/20 coinsurance rule:
1. Your insurance pays 80% of ,000 = ,000.
2. You pay 20% of ,000 = ,000.
Important: The Out-of-Pocket Maximum
The 80/20 split does not continue indefinitely. Every health plan has an out-of-pocket maximum—the most you will have to pay in a single year for covered services. Once your total out-of-pocket spending (including your deductible and your 20% coinsurance) reaches this limit, your insurance company pays 100% of all covered medical costs for the rest of the year.
This is a critical protection. In the example above, if your out-of-pocket maximum were ,000, and you had already spent ,000 on other care, you would only pay ,000 toward the procedure before hitting your limit. After that, the insurance company would cover everything.
Real-World Example
Let’s walk through a full year scenario.
Deductible = ,500. Coinsurance = 80/20. Out-of-pocket maximum = ,000.
You have surgery costing ,000.
– You pay the first ,500 (your deductible).
– Remaining balance: ,500.
– You pay 20% of ,500 = ,700.
– Insurance pays 80% of ,500 = ,800.
,500 + ,700 = ,200.
You need an MRI costing ,000.
– Since your deductible is met, you pay 20% = 0.
– Insurance pays 80% = ,600.
,200 + 0 = ,600.
You have a second surgery costing ,000.
– You pay 20% of ,000 = ,000.
– However, your out-of-pocket maximum is ,000. You have already paid ,600. So you only need to pay ,400 more to reach your limit.
– Insurance pays the remaining ,600.
,600 + ,400 = ,000 (maximum reached).
All further covered medical costs are paid at 100% by your insurance.
Why Do Insurers Use the 80/20 Rule?
This structure is designed to align incentives. By requiring you to pay a percentage of the cost, you are encouraged to shop for more affordable care and avoid unnecessary treatments. At the same time, the out-of-pocket maximum protects you from catastrophic financial loss.
Key Takeaways
1. The 80/20 rule applies after you meet your deductible.
2. You pay 20% of covered costs; your insurer pays 80%.
3. Your total payments are capped by the out-of-pocket maximum.
4. Once you hit that cap, your insurance covers everything.
Understanding the 80/20 coinsurance rule empowers you to budget for healthcare expenses and avoid surprises. Always check your specific policy documents, as percentages and limits can vary by plan.
What is Comprehensive Insurance vs Collision Coverage?
Understanding the difference between comprehensive and collision insurance is essential for any vehicle owner. Both are types of physical damage coverage, but they protect your car in very different situations. While liability insurance covers damage you cause to others, comprehensive and collision cover damage to your own vehicle. This guide breaks down each type, the scenarios they cover, and how to decide which one you need.
What is Collision Coverage?
Collision insurance pays for repairs to your vehicle if it is damaged in a crash with another car or object, regardless of who is at fault. This includes accidents like hitting a tree, a guardrail, or another parked car. It also covers single-car accidents, such as rolling your vehicle into a ditch. Collision coverage is typically required by lenders if you are financing or leasing a car.
Key features of collision coverage:
- Covers damage from collisions with other vehicles or objects.
- Applies regardless of fault.
- Often required by auto loan or lease agreements.
- Subject to a deductible (usually 0–,000).
- Does not cover theft, vandalism, weather damage, or animal strikes.
What is Comprehensive Coverage?
Comprehensive insurance covers damage to your vehicle that is not caused by a collision. It is often referred to as “other than collision” coverage. This includes events such as theft, vandalism, fire, falling objects (like tree branches), natural disasters (hail, flood, earthquake), and hitting an animal (deer, dog, etc.). Like collision, comprehensive is also frequently required by lenders.
Key features of comprehensive coverage:
- Covers non-collision damage: theft, weather, fire, vandalism, animal strikes.
- Protects against falling objects and environmental hazards.
- Subject to a deductible (often 0–0).
- Does not cover damage from a car accident with another vehicle.
- Often bundled with collision in a “full coverage” policy.
Key Differences at a Glance
| Scenario | Collision Coverage | Comprehensive Coverage |
|---|---|---|
| You rear-end another car | Yes | No |
| Your car is stolen | No | Yes |
| You hit a deer | No | Yes |
| Your windshield cracks from a rock | No | Yes |
| You slide on ice and hit a tree | Yes | No |
| Hail damages your roof and hood | No | Yes |
| You hit a pothole and damage suspension | Yes | No |
Do You Need Both?
Whether you need comprehensive, collision, or both depends on several factors:
- Vehicle Value: If your car is older and worth less than a few thousand dollars, the cost of both coverages may exceed the potential payout. Many experts recommend dropping comprehensive and collision once your car’s value falls below ,000–,000.
- Loan or Lease Requirements: If you are financing or leasing, your lender will almost certainly require both comprehensive and collision coverage to protect their investment.
- Your Financial Situation: If you could afford to repair or replace your car out of pocket without financial hardship, you might choose to self-insure and skip these coverages. If not, both are wise investments.
- Risk Factors: If you live in an area prone to hail, floods, or deer strikes, comprehensive coverage is particularly valuable. If you have a long commute or drive in heavy traffic, collision coverage is more important.
How Deductibles Work
Both comprehensive and collision coverages require you to choose a deductible—the amount you pay out of pocket before your insurance kicks in. Common deductibles range from 0 to ,000. A higher deductible lowers your premium but increases your financial risk in a claim. A lower deductible means higher premiums but less out-of-pocket expense when you file a claim.
Note: Comprehensive claims are often less expensive than collision claims (e.g., a broken windshield vs. a full front-end repair). Some insurers offer zero-deductible options for glass repair under comprehensive coverage.
Final Recommendation
For most drivers with a financed or moderately valued vehicle, carrying both comprehensive and collision coverage is the safest financial decision. It protects you from a wide range of unexpected events—from a fender bender to a fallen tree. However, if your car is paid off and its value is low, you may consider dropping these coverages to save on premiums. Always review your policy annually with your insurance agent to ensure your coverage matches your current needs and risk tolerance.
Understanding the difference between comprehensive and collision insurance empowers you to make informed decisions, ensuring you are neither over-insured nor under-protected.
re is a professional English article on the topic, written with clear definitions and practical examples
—
Title: Term Life Insurance Definition with Real Examples
Introduction
Life insurance is a cornerstone of financial planning, designed to provide financial security for dependents in the event of an untimely death. Among the various types of life insurance, term life insurance stands out as the most straightforward and cost-effective option for pure protection. Unlike permanent life insurance (such as whole life or universal life), term life insurance has no savings or investment component. Instead, it offers a guaranteed death benefit for a specific period, or “term,” in exchange for fixed premium payments.
This article provides a clear definition of term life insurance and illustrates its practical application through real-world examples.
Definition of Term Life Insurance
Term life insurance is a contract between an individual (the policyholder) and an insurance company. The policyholder agrees to pay a premium—either monthly, quarterly, or annually—for a predetermined period, typically ranging from 10 to 30 years. In return, the insurance company promises to pay a specified sum of money (the death benefit) to the designated beneficiary if the policyholder dies within that term.
Key characteristics of term life insurance include:
Coverage lasts for a specific number of years (e.g., 10, 20, or 30 years).
The premium amount remains constant for the entire duration of the term.
There is no cash value accumulation. The policy only pays out upon the death of the insured during the term.
Many policies allow conversion to a permanent life insurance policy without a medical exam.
Real Example 1: Protecting a Young Family
Scenario: Sarah and David are a married couple in their early 30s. They have a 2-year-old daughter, Emily, and a 30-year mortgage of 0,000. David is the primary breadwinner, earning ,000 per year. They want to ensure that if David dies unexpectedly, Sarah can pay off the mortgage, cover Emily’s education costs, and maintain their standard of living.
Solution: David purchases a 20-year term life insurance policy with a 0,000 death benefit. The premium is approximately per month.
The 20-year term aligns with the time until Emily graduates from college and the mortgage is nearly paid off. The 0,000 is calculated to cover the mortgage (0,000), college tuition (0,000), and provide a financial cushion for Sarah (0,000).
If David dies within the 20-year term, Sarah receives the 0,000 tax-free. She can pay off the mortgage, fund Emily’s education, and have stability without David’s income. If David outlives the term, the policy expires, but his financial obligations (mortgage and child-rearing) are largely complete.
Real Example 2: Covering Business Debt
Scenario: Two business partners, Michael and Lisa, own a successful marketing agency. They took out a 0,000 business loan to expand their office space. The loan agreement states that if one partner dies, the surviving partner is personally liable for the full debt. Michael is 45 years old and in good health.
Solution: Michael purchases a 10-year term life insurance policy with a 0,000 death benefit (matching the loan amount). The premium is roughly per month.
The 10-year term matches the loan repayment schedule. The death benefit is specifically designated to pay off the business debt.
If Michael dies during the term, Lisa receives the 0,000. She uses this money to pay off the loan, keeping the business solvent and avoiding personal financial ruin. If Michael survives the 10 years, the loan is likely paid off, and the insurance is no longer needed.
Real Example 3: Income Replacement for a Single Parent
Scenario: Maria is a 38-year-old single mother of two teenage sons, ages 14 and 16. She earns ,000 per year as a nurse. She has no significant savings but wants to ensure her sons can complete college if she dies.
Solution: Maria purchases a 15-year term life insurance policy with a 0,000 death benefit. Her premium is approximately per month.
The 15-year term covers the period until her youngest son graduates from college. The 0,000 is calculated to replace her income for five years (,000 x 5 = 0,000), covering living expenses and tuition.
If Maria dies within the term, the death benefit provides a trust fund for her sons’ college education and living costs, managed by a guardian. If she outlives the term, her sons are likely financially independent, and she no longer needs the coverage.
When Term Life Insurance is Not Ideal
While term life is excellent for temporary needs, it is not suitable for everyone. For example, if you have a lifelong dependent (such as a child with special needs) or want to leave an inheritance or fund an estate tax, a permanent policy like whole life or universal life may be more appropriate.
Conclusion
Term life insurance is a powerful, affordable tool for managing specific financial risks over a defined period. By matching the coverage term to a concrete financial obligation—such as a mortgage, child-rearing years, or business debt—policyholders can ensure their loved ones are protected without paying for unnecessary lifetime coverage. The real examples above demonstrate how term life insurance provides peace of mind and financial security at a fraction of the cost of permanent alternatives.